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CENTRAL  CIRCULATION  AND  BOOKSTACKS 

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THE  EVOLUTION  OE  THE  KOOK 

A study  of  the  evolution  of  the  book  takes  us  back  to  the 
earliest  methods  by  which  man  recorded  his  deeds  or  communicated 
with  other  men.  Our  appreciation  of  the  development  will  be 
clearer  if  we  study  the  separate  elements  which  form  the  complete 
book,  than  if  we  try  to  trace  the  complete  book  through  successive 
ages  . 

V.^e  shall,  therefore,  speak  of  symbols  of  communication  I 

or  writing,  of  materials  of  records,  of  forms  of  records;  we  shall 

a v\ci 

see  reproductions  of  many  noted  books,  we  shall  trace  the  character- 
istics of  book -illustration  from  the  earliest  times*  asd — shall  olooe 
with  a glance  at — pt'ciJHliieiiL — types  ef  binrlaing. 

Symbols  of  Communication . 

In  the  earliest  days  of  which  we  have  record,  oral  tradi- 
tion was  the  means  of  transmitting  history  from  one  generation  to 
another.  The  theory  has  been  advanced  t.hat  at  first  actual  objects 
v/ere  used  to  express  thoughts.  Herodotus  relates  that  Darius, 

King  of  Persia,  having  lead  an  army  against  Scythia,  received  from 
the  Scythian  chief  gifts  of  a bird,  a mouse,  a frog,  and  five  arrows. 
"These  gifts",  said  the  messenger,  "mean  that  my  master's  arrows 
will  surely  destroy  you,  unless  you  can  fly  through  the  air  like  a 
bird,  burrow  through  the  ground  like  a mouse,  or  make  your  way  through 
the  swamps  like  a frog." 

Certain  it  is  that  the  first  writing  was  picture-v/riting, 
or  hieroglyphic.  The  oldest  kno\vn  hieroglyphic  inscription  dates 
back  to  B.  C.  4000.  It  is  the  cornice  over  a false  door  of  a tomb. 


Sh.  2-e 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2017  with  funding  from 

University  of  Illinois  Urbana-Champaign  Alternates 


https://archive.org/details/evolutionofbookOOshar 


-2- 


and  is  now  x^reserved  in  the  Ashmolean  Lluseu!.!  at  Oxford. 

The  next  step  was  symbolic  writing,  or  the  use  of  pictures 
to  represent  ideas.  This  is  also  called  hieratic,  or  priest's 
writing . 

The  third  step  was  to  use  a symbol  for  a particular  sound. 

This,  or  the  phonographic  stage,  is  our  own.  The  common  form  of 
writing  in  early  Egypt  was  called  demotic,  or  the  people's. 

Both  this  and  the  hieratic  were  cursive  or  running  hands.  In 
modern  types,  the  Gothic  preceded  the  Roman,  and  the  Roman  preceded 
the  Italic,  but  the  Roman  prevails. 

For  centuries  the  interpretation  of  these  old  writings  was 
lost.  In  1799  a key  was  discovered  at  Rosetta  by  a French  officer 
who  was  digging  the  foundation  of  a house.  This  key  was  the  Rosetta 
Stone,  now  in  the  British  Museum.  It  contained  inscriptions  in 
three  kinds  of  writing  (1)  hieroglyphic  (2)  demotic  (3)  Greek, 

The  inscriptions  were  imperfect,  but  a perfect  dui)licate  was  found 
later.  Th^re  are  many  facsimiles  in  existence,  one  of  them  being 
at  the  University  of  Illinois.  As  the  Greek  was  well  kno’Am,  this 
stone  furnished  a clue  to  the  history  and  literature  of  the  ancient 
Egypti ans . 

Another  form  of  ancient  writing  was  the  cuneiform.  This 
^ as  the  name  denotes,  was  wedge-shaped  and  v»ras  formed  by  the  impression 
of  a wedge-shaped  instrument  in  soft  material  usually.  This  v/as 
cormnon  in  Babylonia  and  Assyria. 


-3- 


I Materi,a.ls . 

Stone  was  the  earliest  material  used.  The  rock  he'^vn 
records  of  Assyria  are  the  lar^jest  books  in  the  world.  At  first, 
stones  were  set  up  to  commemorate  great  events,  then  the^’’  were 
graven  with  flint,  even  bowlders  and  mountain  sides  being  used. 
Prominent  among  these  is  Behistun,  a rock  in  western  Persia,  which 
rises  perpendicularly  1700  feet.  Over  300  feet  from  the  base,  on 
a polished  surface,  is  sculptured  a bas-relief  picturing  Darius 
with  a long  row  of  fettered  prisoners,  representatives  of  conquered 
nations.  The  bas-relief  is  surrounded  by  numerous  columns  of 
inscriptions,  making  in  all  over  1000  lines  of  cuneiform  v^riting. 

The  long  account  of  Darius’  reign  is  repeated  in  three 
languages.  This  description  was  not  deciphered  till  1835-37,  when 
Sir  Henry  Rawlinson  succeeded  by  means  of  powerful  field  glasses  in 
seeing  the  characters  v/hich  iie  copied  and  later  deciphered.  This 
achievement  placed  Assyriology  on  the  basis  of  science. 

Pollov/ing  the  use  of  bowlders  came  t?ie  hev/ing  of  obelisks 
or  slender  shafts  covered  witli  picture  writing.  These  were  superseded 
by  temple  and  palace  v/alls  on  which  were  inscribed  pictured  stories 
of  the  deeds  of  priests  and  of  kings. 

Clay X succeeded  stone  as  a cheaper  and  easier  substance  to  use. 

% The  conmnon  form  was  a small  qua^;;.ngular  tablet,  ranging  from  5x9 
inches  to  1 x 1/2  inch^.  V/hen  the  clay  was  soft  the  ttimeiforra 
characters  were  impressed  upon  it  by  a wedge  shaped  stylus.  V/hen 
. the  writing  was  finished  the  bricks  were  baked  in  kiln  and  small 

A 

holes  were' made  in  the  clay  to  allow  the  escape  of  moisture.  Some- 


1 


-4- 


times  a brick  was  inclosed  within  a case  which  bore  the  sane  inscrip 
tion.  This  was  coininon  in  contract-tablets,  for  safety. 

Another  fon.i  of  clay  tablet  used  aong  the  early  Assyrians 
X was  the  prism  or  foundation  cylinder,  so  called  because  it  bore  the 
records  corresponding  to  those  placed  in  corner-stones  today.  These 
were  deposited  by  Assyrian  kings  at  the  corners  of  temples.  T?iese 
were  barrel -shaped , hexagonal,  or  round,  and  varied  in  length  from 

one  to  three  leet.  The  v/riting  was  minute,  one  exaiaple  showing  five 
lines  to  the  inch. 

^ ^Hd  tablets  were  used  extensively  by  the 

early  Romans.  These  tablets  were  corniaonly  covered  v/ith  wax,  there 
being  a slight  iirojeotionjin  the  center  of  each  leaf  to  prevent 
erasure  of  the  writing  on  wax.  The  leaves,  froii  two  to  six  or  eight 
in  number  were  bound  in  wood  and  v/ere  connected  together  at  the 
back  by  rings  or  a ribbon. 

of  trees  were  used  in  the  Eastern  countries,  where  the 
foliage  was  thick.  Strips  were  cut  from  a foot  to  a foot  and  a half 
long  and  two  inches  broad,  and  then  smoothed.  After  the  characters 
were  written  on  then  they  were  rubbed  with  oil  and  charcoal. 

Several  strips  were  fastened  together  by  strings,  thus  resembling  a 
sandal  wood  fan. 

Ox  trees  cLnd_JJj;.ej]^  cloth  have  also  been  used  for  writing 

materials . 


however,  was  the  first  material  destined  to  meet  the 


-5- 


X 


demands  of  an  increasin^^  literature.  This  was  a kind  of  paper 
made  from  the  fibres  of  the  stem  of  the  papyrus  plant,  which  was 
the  bulrush  of  the  ITile,  made  faiiiliar  by  the  story  of  the  infant 
Moses.  Its  value  to  literature  was  discovered  as  early  as  B.  C. 

2000 . 

The  fibres  of  the  stem  were  placed  across  each  other  in 
two  layers,  dampened,  i)ressed  ^then  ijolished  with  ivory  or  stone  or 
shall,  and  finally  dried  in  the  sun.  Single  sheets  were  fastened 
together  to  make  long  rolls,  one  roll  now  in  Paris  measuring  30  ft. 
Each  sheet  formed  a page  or  column  of  text,  which  read  from  right  to 
left  in  the  hieroglyphics  of  Egypt. 

Chicago  is  said  to  have  the  largest  collection  of  ancient 

IVN 

papyri  west  of  the  Atla,ntic.  It  is  the  Field  Columbian  Museum 

and  contains  extracts  from  the  Book  of  the  dead.  Mo>"e  than  one  half 

of  the  existing  papyri  are  transcripts  of  portions  of  its  text. 

Thfii  Book  of  the  dead  consisted  of  invocations  to  deities, 
psalms,  prayers,  and  descriptions  of  experiences  that  awaited  the 
spirit  of  the  departed  in  the  world  to  come.  This  book  is  the  first 
literature  of  whose  sale  we  have  any  record.  It  served  as  e.  memorial 
of  the  deceased  and  the  undertaker  made  a business  of  disposing  of 
as  mfoiy  copies  as  j)ossible  a‘ong  friends  of  the  departed  one. 

The  Egj^ptian  undertaker  ranks  as  the  first  book-seller  known 
to  history.  The  coi)ies  prepared  for  an;^'-  particular  funeral  were  more 
or  less  complete^  or  elaborate  in  form,  in  proportion  to  the  wealth 
or  importance  of  the  deceased,  or  to  the  means  of  the  friends.  The 
material  was  always  papyrus,  while  for  the  covers  tinted  or  stained 


sheepskin  was  used.  One  cox)y  was  always  placed  in  the  tomb  as  a 
safe  conduct  through  Hades  and  a guide  to  the  world  to  come. 


•Book  of  til  e >)ead~ 

The  17th  chapter  shown  here  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
in  the  whole  collection.  It  contains  in  complete  form  the  Egyptian 
Cosmogony  as  taught  at  Heliopolis,  and  dates  some  2000  years  before 
any  probable  date  of  Moses.  The  chapter  is  mystical  in  the  highest 
degree  and  is  often  accompanied  by  Egyptian  opinions  as  to  the 
meaning  of  certain  deities  and  their  types. 


Parchment  or  vellum 

Skins  of  animals  formed  such  a durable  material  for  writing  on 

that  they  were  used  very  early  and  continue  to  be  used  for 

^ A 

diplomas  and  official  documents . The  common  story  as  to  the  intro- 
duction of  parchment  is  tliat  the  king  of  Pergarnum  (B.  C.  197-158) 
wishing  to  extend  his  library  asked  the  Ptolemies  for  papyrus.  They 
refused  to  exi)ort  any,  hoping  to  prevent  the  growth  of  a rival 
library.  The  ‘f’ergamene  king  was  forced  to  use  skins  and  thus  arose 

A>-C-t\WV€.\\'b  AVN.V.  p VVA.«.W't~  "T" 

the  manufacture  of.  vellum.  The  advantages  of  the  vellum  over  the 
papyrus  were  that  it  was  more  durable,  it  coula  receive  writing  on 
both  sides,  it  could  be  rev/ritten,  and  it  could  be  made  in  sheets 
as  well  as  in  rolls.  Its  smooth  surface  also  showed  off  colors  well 
and  encouraged  ornamentation.  The  skins  of  sheep  and  goats  were  used 


in  making  parchment,  and  the  skins  of  young  calves  in  making  vellum. 


-7- 


The  roll  was  the  early  popular  form  of  parchment  or  vellum  hooks. 


Thus  volumen  or  roll  gives  us  our  word  volume.  In  Greece  and  Italy 
they  were  written  on  separate  pages  a.nf!  fastened  parallel  to  each 
other,  so  that  the  reader  read  one  page,  rolled  it  up,  and  unrolled 
another.  The  writing  was  arranged  in  columns  with  lines  parallel  to 


the  top  and  bottom  of  the  roll^each  page  containing  one  column.  The 


-h 


ordinary'  rolls  rarely  exceeded  100  pages  but  instances  have  been 
found  of  rolls  100  or  120  yards  long.  Each  roll  formed  one  book. 

The  edges  of  the  rolls  were  colored  as  edges  of  books  are  today. 

The  title  and  contents  were  on  a tag,  hanging  from  the  end  of  the 
roll  or  attached  to  one  edge.  The  ro''ls  belonging  to  one  work  might 
he  placed  in  a round  case  v/ith  cover.  After  the  roll  came  parchment 
sheets  folded  and  j'jlaced  one  inside  another,  usually  in  sections  of 
four,  when  the  book  was  said  to  be  made  of  quaternions.  In  Greece 
and  Rome  the  scribes  formed  a distinct  profession,  in  many  cases  they 
were  slaves,  but  in  theiV^ddle  ages  the  finest  work  was  done  in  the 
monasteries.  The  work  was  done  either  from  dictation  or  by  copying 
^ in  silence.  The  Scriptorium  was  one  large  room  or  small  studies 
opening  from  the  cloister.  Absolute  silence  was  enjoined,  but  a 
great  variety  of  signs  were  in  use  for  Communication.  If  a scribe 
needed  a book,  he  extended  his  hands  and  made  a movement  as  if  turn- 
ing over  leaves.  If  he  needed  a missal,  he  added  the  sign  of  a cross, 
if  a psalter,  he  placed  his  hands  on  his  head  in  the  shape  of  a crown 
(a  reference  to  King  David),  if  a lectionary,  he  pretended  to  wipe 
away  the  grease  which  might  have  fallen  on  it  from  a candle,  finally. 


if  he  wished  a pagan  v/ork,  after  the  genera.1  sign,  he  scratched  his 
ear  like  a dog. 


-8- 


Paper 

With  the  next  step  caine  paper,  and  the  Chinese  have  the  credit 
of  discovering  the  art  of  making  paper  from  fihroiis  matter  reduced 
to  a pulp,  by  using  the  bark  of  the  mulberry  tree.  The  industry  in 
modified  form  spread  into  all  civilized  countries.  The  materials 

now  used  are  either  rags  or  wood.  Machinery  no.y  makes  the  processes 

b'C-v  vx 

simple  5 *^tgs  arc  ricr!i/  cleaned  and  bleached  and  freed  from  buttons, 

■tV\\s 

hooks  and  other  hard  substances  by  means,  of  )■lnehiwe!^y . The  fibres 

are  reduced  to  a pulp  in  a vat,  next  the  pulp  is  placed  on  a fine 

wire  screen  above  which  is  a frame  known  as  the  "deckel”.  The 

screen  is  moved  constantly  back  and  forth  tin/{he  water  has  drained 
Tl\em  I'S  passe  A 

through..  The  manner  in  which  the  wires  are  arranged  gives'^to  oertain 

papers  their  characteristics.  ^^Hien  the  wi^'e  is  woven  like  cloth,  the 

product  is  knov/n  as  "wove"  paper,  when  the  wires  run  only  one  way, 

straight  and  very  close  together  and  are  crossed  by  stronger  wires  an 

tt  ,1 

inch  or  so  apart,  the  paper  is  cAled  laid  paper.  At  some  point  in 
the  wire  a small  figure  is  worked  out,  also  in  wire,  and  as  the 
pulp  is  shaken  it  becomes  thinner  over  the  design,  leaving  the 
impress  knov/n  as  the  "watermark"  . This  may  be  seen  by  holding 
paper  U])  to  the  li^^t  . The  location  of  a watermark  in  a bound  book 
decides  whether  the  book  be  a quarto,  an  octavo,  a duodecimo,  etc., 
as  it  shows  the  center  of  the  original  sheet,  and  indicates  the 
number  of  times  it  was  folded. 

When  highly  polished  paper  is  desired  for  illustrations,  it 
is  passed  over  stea^n-heated  rollers,  called  calenders,  which  is  a 


-9- 


corruption  of  cylindrus  or  cylinder.  This  paper  is  called  calendered 
paper.  If  ?*.antique"  finish  be  '.vished,  all  calendering  is  omitted. 

If  a ragged  edge^  called  ”deckeA.  edge’^  be  ^vanted,  the  result  is  obtained 
by  playing  a stream  of  water  upon  the  edge  of  the  pulp,  crushing  and 


thinning  it  and  thus  giving  it  a jagged  appearance. 

■p'T  ^ v\*\:\v\^ 


Having  touched  upon  the  symbols  of  communication,  the 
materials  and  forms  of  books,  we  are  ready  to  consider  mechanical 
means  for  duplicating  manuscripts  and  pictures  on  paper. 

The  first  process  is  block  printing,  or  xylography /and 
X was  first  applied  to  playing  cards.)  The  figure  was  cut  in  relief  on 
wood,  then  inked,  and  reproduced  on  paper  by  pressure  .yv^Fol lowing 


0,  a 


i)laying  cards,  popular  figures  were  cut  in  wood  The  St.  Christopher 
^ here  sho’wn  is  attributed  to  the  year  1423,  and  is  considered  the  first 
xylographic  plate.  /The  single  leaf  with  a figure  printed  upon  it 
preceded  the  xylographic  book,  in  which  text  and  illustration  were 
cut  in  the  sahie  block.  [The  figure  had  to  be  cut  in  relief  in  reverse^ 
A mistake  was  very  serious.  /It  -was  doubtless  because  of  this  diffi- 
cultjr  that  repeat ed ''efforts  were  made  to  produce  movable  type,  the 
first  attempt  separating  the  text  and  the  illustration.^  All  of  the 
xylographic  books  of  the  15th  cent\iry  fall  into  two  classes;  the  xylo- 
graphs proper,  or  those  printed  with  fixed  type,  and  the  book  with 
more  or  less  fixed  plates  and  v/ith  movable  types. 

One  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  block  books  was  the 

X' 

i 


V 


Biblia  jjauperum,  or  Bible  of  the  poor,  whicli  is  a series  of  scriptural 
designs  briefly  explained  by  passages  from  the  H.oly  Scriptures.  The 


-10- 


general  subject  of  the  plate  here  sho\m  is  the  annuniation,  v/ith  the 

Holy  Ghost  descending  in  a breath  from  the  Father  above.  At  the  left 

is  sho\vn  the  tei.ftation  of  Eve  and  at  the  right  is  Gideon  and  his 

A 

X'  fleece.  Another  famous  block -book  is  the  Ars  mernorandi,  a work 
intended  to  recall,  by  means  of  familiar  signs,  the  leading  passages 
of  the  four  Gospels . The  work  consists  of  symbols  of  the  four 
Evangelists^^  "Ithe  execution  is  extremely  rude.  The  plates  were 
described  by  separate  pages  of  text,  reference  being  made  by  means 
of  numbers.  The  figure  shown  is  that  of  St.  Tlatthew.  Ho.  18 

*r— 

represents  the  sun  and  moon.  Ho.  19,  marriage,  refering  to  the 

A 

ancestors  of  Christ  as  enumerated  by  St.  Matthew. 

Ho.  20,  the  cockle  shell  Lind  bunch  of  grapes  for  travel  and 
pilgrimage. 

’ Ho.  21,  the  head  of  an  ass  to  recall  Christ's  entry  into  Jerusalem 
riding  on  a ass . 

Ho.  22,  the  Last  Supper. 

>C  The  Ars  rnoTiendi  is  equally  well  kncrwn . The  text,  like 

that  of  Ars  mernorandi,  occupies  entire  pages.  It  is  a kind  of  dialo^^^ 
between  an  an^J^I^/and  the  devil  at  the  bedside  of  a dying  person. 

The  example  here  given  shows  a good  man,  dying  v/ith  a s;nile  on  his 
facej  a monk  places  a lighted  taper  before  him,  an  angel  receives 
his  spirit  which  is  represented  by  the  sraall  figure  of  a man,  while 
the  demons  rage  with  disappointment,  crying  out ( according  to  the  labels; 

' "Ho  hope  for  us",  "We  are  put  to  confusion". 


-11- 


The  earliest  known  example  of  printing  with  movable  types 

X 

was  the  Speculum  humanae  salvationis,  or  Ilirror  of  human  salvation. 
This  was  common  in  manuscript,  then  was  issued  as  a pure  block  book, 
then  with  fixed  illustrations  but  movable  type,  so  that  it  forms  the 
connecting  link  between  block -books  and  the  true  printing  press. 

This  copy  is  assigned  to  Laurent  Caster,  of  Haarlem,  whose  claim  to 
the  invention  of  printing  with  movable  type  is  urged  against  that 
of  John  Gutenberg,  of  Ilayence.  VGiether  printing  rose  in  Holland  or 
Germany  is  immaterial  to  this  chronicle,  ’.'/hen  it  did  appear,  it 
was  a close  copy  of  the  existing  manuscripts,  and  many  wealthy  book- 
lovers  for  a long  time  scorned  the  i)rinted  book  as  a cheap  imitation. 
X Tile  illustration  shows  side  by  side  a pa/’ie  of  mss.  missal 

and  a column  of  print  from  the  Gutenberg  Bible,  which  v/as  the  first 
^ completed  book.  This  Bible  was  begun  by  Gutenberg,  but  finished  by 
Fust  and  Schoeffer  in  1455  or  56.  It  is  called  also  the  Hc^arine 
Bible  because  the  first  copy  was  found  in  the  Mazarine  library.  It 
is  printed  in  two  columns  of  42  lines  each  and  the  number  of  lines 
distinguishes  it  from  later  Bibles.  Spaces  were  left  for  the  headings 
and  for  large  initials  to  be  filled  in  by  the  rubricator.  In  this 
way  some  work  was  saved  for  the  skilled  monks  and  professional 
illuminators.  Even  many  plain  books  were  given  to  the  monks  to  have 
red  or  blue  lines  drawn  through  all  capitals  in  the  work.  Most  of 
the  early  printed  books  had  a space  for  initial  capitals  for  i llumi - 
X.  nating,  but  the  "Psalter  of  Fust  & Schoeffer  was  issued  in  1459  with 
beautiful  initials  printed  in  color.  There  is  a doubt  as  to  whether 


-32  - 


w these  initials  as  well  as  the  type  were  designed  by  Gutenberg,  for 

the  stock  of  FujSt"  & Schoeffer  came  to  them  from  Gutenberg  as  the  result 
of  a law  suit.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  this  perfect  work  was 
issued  only  three  or  at  most  four  years  after  the  first  book  printed 
with  movable  type.  It  seemed  to  omit  the  experimental  sta,ge. 

^ A famous  work  which  rivaled  the  Paalt  er  v/as  the  Bamberg 

missal,  of  1481.  In  size  and  grandeur  of  type  io  is  in  some  respects 
superior  to  Schoeffer' s work,  but  its  initials  were  the  work  of  the 
illuminator  instead  of  the  printing  press.  It  was  modeled  after 
the  large  church  service  books  of  the  day.  The  upper  part  of  the 
example  here  shown  is  a manuscript  missal.  The  lower  part  is  the 
printed  Bamberg  missal  in  close  imitation. 

From  Holland  and  Germany,  the  art  of  printing  went  to 
Italy,  where  it  v/as  fi(2lryt  practiced  in  1465  in  the  jnonastery  of 
Subio^o,  by  two  Germans  invited  there  for  the  purpose.  A page  of 
X their  first  important  work,  the  "Lactaw-b» ws”  is  here  shown.  It  is 
printed  in  imitation  of  Italian  writing,  in  the  style  now  called 
Roman,  as  distinguished  from  the  Gothic  which  was  used  in  the  German 
books.  It  was  further  di stinguished  by  having  the  first  Greek  passages 
printed  from  movable  type.  Schoeffer  had  previously  cast  a few 
Greek  words  for  occasional  works,  but  the  monks  of  Subio^o  cast 
separate  letters.  The  borders  are  in  Italian  style,  traced  for  the 
rubricator.  The  square  left  for  the  Initial  M has  been  filled  in 
in  German  style.  The  writing  at  the  bottom  of  the  page  was  added  by 


some  owner . 


-13- 


The  next  country  to  establish  a press  was  Prance  in  1471, 
when  printing  was  introduced  at  the  University  by  three  Swiss, 
invited  for  the  purpose.  It  is  curious  to  note  that  the  first  printers 
in  France  were  not  Frenchmen,  that  they  printed  in  Roiaan  type,  that 
the  first  twelve  books  printed  in  Prance  were  not  in  the  French 
tongue,  and  that  the  first  book  issued  in  French  was  not  printed  in 
Prance. 

The  Neither lands  received  the  new  style  of  printing  in 
1473,  and  England  follovved  in  1474.  In  Uorth  America  a press  was 
established  in  Mexico  in  1540,  and  one  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  in  1638. 

After  the  establishment  of  the  art  in  the  various  countries, 
the  history  of  printing  is  not  so  much  a chronicle  of  innovations  and 
* changes  as  it  a record  of  the  printer-publisher*^  who  were  scholars, 

* artists  and  artisans,  who  attracted  to  themselves  great  scholars 
as  editors,  and  w?io  founded  houses  enduring  through  several  genera- 
tions . 

In  Venice  in  the  first  part  of  the  16th  century  there  was 
Ald^Jls  Manutius  who  founded  a Greek  academy.  The  language  of  his 
household  was  Greek,  his  workmen  were  Greeks.  He  printed  choice 
editions  of  the  classics,  in  handy  size.  Por.merly  books  had  been 
folio  or  quarto,  a^^^vival  of  the  block-printing  when  it  was  easier 
to  pull  a large  sheet  from  the  press.  Aldus  h8.s  the  distinction  of 
inventing  the  Italic  type  which  he  copied  from  the  handwriting  of 


Petrarch . 


-14- 


In  France  the  cl istinguished  Estienne  family  flourished  in 
the  second  half  of  the  16th  century.  They  v/ere  noted  for  their 
beautiful  Greek  types. 

In  the  lTe\therlands , the  "Plafltilis  printed  in  Antv/erp,  and 
the  Elzevi  in  Leyden^  the  former  in  the  16th,  the  la.tter  in  the 
17th  century. 

The  PlantiAs  encouraged  rnetal  engraving  and  set  the  fashion 
for  heavy  title  pages.  Their  greatest  work  vcas  the  Polyglot  Bible. 

The  Elzeviyb  were  of  classics,  anci  excelled  in  small  editions 

and  delicate  v/ork.  They  cared  nothing  for  ornament.  Many  of  their 
books  were  too  small  for  use. 

In  England  the  prominent  names  were  Caxton,  Wynken  de  Worde, 
and  Pynson,  in  the  15th  and  16th  centuries,  ^f^-nson  being  the  first 
to  introduce  the  Roman  letter  into  England. 

It  was  not  until  the  last  year  of  the  16th  century  that 
stereotype  printing  wo.s  invented  in  Prance  by  one  of  the  Didot 
family.  This  has  bren  of  great  importance  in  the  reprinting  of 
popular  works  . ^ \-  ■ 

TjLjlle  j)aii.e.s 

To  turn  to  the  details  of  the  book,  we  find  that  it  was  fifteen 
years  after  the  publication  of  the  first  comiDleted  book  before  a 
title  page  appeared.  The  scribes  had  mentioned  the  title  in  a few 
lines  at  the  beginning  of  the  first  page.  The  first  printers  followed 
this  custom.  It  was  natural  for  the  scribe  to  give  at  the  end  of  his 
v/ork,  the  da.te  of  coJipletion  and  other  similar  information.  This 


-15- 


^ fin£.l  paragraph  is  called  the  "colophon”,  and  first  appeared  in  a 
printed  book  in  the  famous  Psalter  of  Fust  & Schoeffer  in  1457.  The 
X first  title  page  ever  printed  is  here  shown,  as  the  v/ork  of  Arnold 
theT  rioernen  of  Cologne  in  1473.  The  label  title  page,  that  is  the 
shortest  title  of  the  book  at  the  top  of  a blank  pag^  held  sway  till 
nearly  1520.  The  custoiri  of  illuminating  by  hand  the  first  page  of 
text  continued  till  the  beginning  of  the  16th  centuri-',  but  r.s  time 
went  on,  the  p>'intcrs  became  more  independent  and  some  of  them 
surrounded  the  first  page  of  text  v/ith  a wood  cut  or  engraved  border. 

X This  example  shows  th^danger  of  excessive  ornamentation. 

)(  The  next  example  shows  better  style  v/ith  paragraph  titlTe,  beautiful 
border  and  artistic  designs,  with  a few  lines  of  print. 

The  next  step  v/as  to  use  a wood  cut  covering  the  whole  or  greater 
part  of  the  page  with  the  title  in  shortest  .possible  form.  Ajiother 

* 

class  of  title  pages,  popular  in  Prance,  was  that  introduced  by 
Antoine  Verard,  consisting  of  a wood  cut  ;.nd  a book  title,  but 
X"  characterized  by  an  ornamental  L.  Considering  that  L begins  the 
F'^ench  article,  it  was  an  easy  letter  to  use.  IHto  this  letter, 

Verard  tv/isted  faces,  frowning,  smiling,  or  distorted,  or  figures 
of  various  kinds,  imposing  as  v/ell  as  grotesque.  The  Italians  pro- 
^ duced  graceful  effects  by  the  use  of  beautiful  type  arran^.,ed  in 

tapering  form,  with  printer's  mark  beneath.  The  mark  here  shown  is 
that  of  the  GM^nta  family,  prominent  in  Venice  in  the  early  16th 
century.  The  great  difficulty  in  arranging  lines  on  this  plan  is  to 
‘have  the  lines  end  with  the  end  of  words.  This  leads  to  the  last 
^ stage  of  the  title  page,  when  it  was  expected  to  tell  not  only  the 


, I 


f 


¥ 


-16- 


naines  of  the  book  and  of  the  author,  but  of  the  publisher  as  v/ell, 

^ with  date.  The  pa.^e  here  shown  is  from  the  press  of  Aldus.  Only- 
two  types  are  used,  but  several  lines  are  necessary  in  order  to  give 
credit  to  various  edi  t>i{oirs . The  well  known  Aldine  anchor  corapletes 
the  description. 

^ As  the  desire  for  ornamental  title  pages  increased,  the  printer’s 

mark  often  took  the  place  of  the  former  v/ood  cut.  This  is  the  device 
of  Antoine  Caillant  of  "^aris  . 

X This  aevice  of  Simon  Vostre  is  from  a vellum  copy  of  a Book  of 

Hours,  and  while  ornate,  is  too  large  for  a title  page.  it  shows  the 
tree  of  knowledge  which  was  a favorite  detail  of  printer's  marks. 

X In  the  second  quarter  of  the  16th  century  title  pages  were 

comi)lete . This  one  of  Robert  Estienne  shows  the  sma.ll  mark  (again 
' the  tree  of  knowledge)  near  the  center  of  the  page.  It  has  the  fault 
of  printing  parts  of  the  same  word  in  different  types. 

In  the  second  half  of  the  16th  century  borders  were  introduced. 
Some  were  delicate  as  those  of  the  French  Rooks  of  Hours,  others 
X were  architectural,  as  here  shown  in  Sir  "^hilip  Sidiiey' s Arcadia. 

With  the  17th  century  the  title  page  declined,  becaiise  of  the 
disuse  of  print  er**" s'*  marks  a.nd  because  of  the  desire  to  print  too 
much  on  the  page  and  to  emphasize  different  parts  by  many  k(n|ij^.s  of 
X type.  The  one  given  here  is  a sample  of  the  lowest  kind.  The  only 
way  to  use  many  lines  of  type  successfully  is  to  use  small  type, 
preferably  of  one  kind,  and  to  arrange  the  lines  symmetrically. 


-17- 


In  tfie  18th  century  the  title  page  improved.  The  most  character- 
istic  feature  is  the  division  of  the  page  into  sections  by  means  of 
horizontal  lines,  as  s^iown  in  the  Vicar  of  Wakefield. 

The  old  title  pages  excelled  because  of  the  beauty  of  their 
pri rite marks , the  restriction  of  the  number  of  types,  the  massive 
arrangement  of  types  in  rectangles  or  triangles,  arui  the  skil^f^l 
use  of  red  ink. 


Illustration. 

Title  pai_,es  and  print er'^sSnarks  lead  to  a consideration  of 
the  general  illustration  of  the  book,  and  this  must  go  back  to  the  i:. 
mss.,  possibly  even  to  the  beginning  of  oiir  alphabet,  when  let!:ers 
were  pictures.  In  all  designs  for  books,  we  distinguish  betv/een 
’ the  graphic  and  the  ornamental,  the  imitative  and  the  inventive,  the 
illustrative  and  the  decorative.  In  the  mss.  books  both  styles  were 
highly  developed,  the  illustrative  nature-lly  preceding.  First 
colored  lines  were  drawn  through  capitals,  then  large  initials  were 
colored,  then  capitals  were  given  flourishes  extending  down  the  page, 
finally  borders  came  in,  with  miniatures  in  them  and  in  the  initials. 
The  illustrator  of  the  mss.  book  had  the  advantage  over  the  illustra- 
tor of  the  printed  book  in  that  he  could  design  his  own  letters  and 
thus  have  his  page  a harmonious  whole.  Modern  artists  are  hampered 
by  inartistic  and  inappropriate  type,  the  block  books, 

^ illustration  was  neglected  for  a time,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of 
distributing  plates  in  the  form^  In  studying  the  priinted  book,  we 
/ firui  that  the  picture  was  used  before  the  text,  as  we  have  seen  in 


-16- 


» the  playing-  card,  and  in  the  St.  Christopher^  In  the  early  printed 
texts,  margins  and  letters  v/ere  left  for  the  illuminator  in  order 
that  he  i.iight  not  be  entirely  sui.)erceded . Next  came  initials  printed 
in  color  as  in  the  Schoeffer  Psalter.  Then  came  cuts  from  v/ood  , first 
{ used  in  146  The  first  illustrations  seem  crude  and  simple  and 
a step  backward  compared  with  the  beautiful  work  of  the  /fcddle  ages, 
but  they  were  dependent  upon  mechanic  processes.  The  early  outline 
^ Work  is  well  sho\vn  in  this  sa:nple  of  the  (rerraan  school  of  the  15th 
century.  The  idea  of  perspective  and  of  proportion  is  deficient  as 
seen  by  comparing  the  height  of  these  people  with  the  houses,  the 
length  of  their  feet  v/i  th  the  windows.  The  pictures  were  executed 
under  the  supervision  of  the  printers  themselves.  There  is  a 
maximum  of  ovA-t\\v^«.  work,  a minimum  of  shading,  anci  no  cross-hatching. 
Every  line  is  simple  and  ciirect  . These  cuts  are  in  keeping  ’.vith  the 
massive  types  and  thifLi-:  white  paper  of  the  books  v/hich  they  illustrate. 
After  1500,  the  artist  and  the  printer  were  not  so  closely  allied, 
paper  and  ink  were  worse,  and  type  was  not  so  carefully  handled. 

By  the  time  great  artists  began  to  turn  their  attention  to  book 
illustration,  pri-ting  in  Germany  was  almost  a lost  art. 

The  second  period  of  book -i llust ration  in  'fermany  dates  from 

% 

the  publication  in  1486  of  Breyd enbach' s Pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem. 

The  artist  accompanied  the  author  on  his  trip.  The  book  contains 
pictures  of  people  and  of  animals  seen  in  the  countries  visited,  and 
it  has  several  maps  or  panoram(\s,  in  siz;e  from  a double  page  to 
’ 5 ft.  long.  This  cut  shows  the  advance  to  shading,  but  without 
X,  cross -hatching  . To  this  i)eriod  belongs  the  llureraberg  Chroni  cle  which 


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-19- 


is  inferior  to  the  work  just  described,  but  which  is  much  better 

! 

known  because  of  the  number  of  coj^ies  in  this  country.  It  was  compiled 
by  a physician  named  Schedel,  the  desifjns  vrere  by  Wohlgemuth,  and 
the  printing  by  Anton  Koberger,  of  Nuremberg.  It  gives  the  history 
of  the  world  from  the  creation  to  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Maximilian  I. 
The  view/s  of  cities  vrtiich  were  in  existence  in  the  artist's  time  are 
frequently  correct,  but  Troy  and  Sodom  are  as  elaborately  pictured 
as  the  existing  cities  and  the  imaginary  city  of  Troj'-  is  afterwards 
used  as  Pisa,  and  finally  as  London.  The  frontispiece  here  s]iown 
represents  the  Deity  on  a Gothic,  throne  corrumaiding  the  successive 
phases  of  creation.  He  wears  a crown  surrounded  by  glory,  v/hich 
divides  itself  into  three  points,  to  indicate  the  Trinity.  In  His 
left  hand  is  the  symbol  of  sovereignty,  the  globe  sunf»\pun^d  by  a 
cross.  The  throne  is  surrounded  by  a circle  of  clouds  in  mediaeval 
style.  The  convoluted  label  work  and  the  Gothic,  arch  of  branchwork 
cared  for  by  children,  are  very  good  examples  of  the  time.  The 
shields  be'^ow  are  for  the  arms  of  the  purchaser. 

Albrecht  Diirer,  pupil  of  Wohlgemuth,  and  Hans  Holbein,  were  the 
masters  in  German  book  illustration.  With  Diirer  at  the  end  of  the 
15th  century  the  book  was  no  more  than  a pretext  for  engravings. 

Much  of  his  'vork  was  portfolios  of  pictures,  rather  than  book- 
illustration.  The  picture  here  shown  of  Christ's  entry  into 
Jerusalem  is  from  Diirer' s Little  Passion,  which  was  first  issued 

^ without  text.  Diirer' s drawing  was  votj  unequal,  ; s shovm  in  this 
f rontispi ece , hut  his  conceptions  were  broad  and  soi'iething  of  the 
style  of  Rubens  whom  he  preceded.  This  piece  with  the  central 
pictorial  composition  and  the  rich  border  is  a remarkable  work. 


-20- 


* The  figure  of  ''Od  the  Father,  with  the  eLiblei.i  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  is 
placed  tibove  the  cross,  to  symbolize  the  Trinity.  The  borders  are 
formed  cy  figures  of  imgels  bearing  the  symbols  of  the  passion,  the 
sponpje  on  a reed,  the  spear,  the  scourge,  a.nd  the  pillar.  These 
are  joined  together  by  a vine  which  ends  in  the  passion  flo’ver  and 
in  bunches  of  grapes,  symbolic  of  the  blood  of  Christ. 

' Hans  Holbein’s  name  is  most  closely  associated  with  the  Dance 

X 

of  Death.  This  v/as  one  of  the  laost  favored  themes  selected  by 
medi^eva,!  artists  , ^iepicting  Death  appearing;;  to  men  and  v/omen  of 
high  tind  low  estate  at  most  unexpected  moments.  It  was  pictured  in 
the  early  mss.,  in  the  early  block  books,  and  its  designs  were  v/oven 
in  borders  of  the  Hooks  of  Hours.  The  present  illustration  is  from 
one  of  the  French  editions  printed  at  Lyons  in  1499,  artist  unknov/n. 
Each  page  contained  two  cuts  in  (rothi^  framework , with  mottos  above 
and  below,  iind  in  each  case  the  speech  of  Death  and  the  answer  of 
the  victim.  This  shows  Death  and  the  Cardinal  and  Death  and  the  King. 

>C  The  follov/ing  are  four  illustrations  by  Hans  Holbein.  The  first 

two  are  from  the  Lyons  edition  of  the  ’’Dance  of  Death”,  show/ ng  the 
call  to  the  Kin^,  and  to  the  Cardinal.  The  lov/er  cut  are  scripture 
subjects  and  taken  with  the  series  above  are  considered  superior  to 
any  other  works  of  the  kind  of  that  time,  either  German  or  Italian. 
They  sho’w  a combination  of  the  strength  of  the  German,  style  with  the 
grace  and  freedoia  of  the  Italian. 

The  Theuerdauck  1517 

^ TTanked  an  ong  the  finest  productions  of  the  Gen.nan  press  in 


1 


21- 


y the  first  half  of  the  16th  century.  The  free  style  of  the  Gothic, 

'■'s 

tyi.)e  and  the  flourishes  to  the  letters  made  many  think  this  a block- 
book,  but  it  was  printed  frojn  movable  type  specially  designed  for 
the  occasion.  The  poem  co;;imemorat es  the  inarria^je  of  the  Rnperor 
Maximilian  I to  Maria  of  Burgundy.  The  illustration  is  also  remark- 
able for  its  picturesqueness.  The  designs  are  by  Schaufelein,  a 
pupil  of  Diirer.  Three  men  worked  on  the  book  for  five  years.  The 
v/ood  engravings  are  numbered  with  Arabic  figures. 

3y  the  middle  of  the  16th  century  in  Germany,  the  artistic 

T 

impulse  had  died  away.  The  Italians  were  slov/-  to  illustrate  their 

books  ^ possibly  because  they  were  surrounded  by  art  works  and  did 

1 s 

not  feel  the  need.  Their  st^  le  cha.ract erized  by  delicate  vignettes 

A 

and  outline  cuts,  succeeded  by  shaded  engravings,  an  abundant  use 
of  red  ink,  and  borders  on  a black  ground,  /n  important  illustrated 
^ series  of  the  15th  century  was  the  Savonarola  tracts,  one  of  which 
we  see,  showing  v/hite  lines  cut  on  a black  ground,  as  well  as  black 
lines  on  white,  with  a typical  border.  In  Italy  metal  engraving 
was  discovered  in  1477,  and  this  changed  methods  of  printing  a.s  two 
impressions  were  necessary  to  print  the  plate  from  incised  lines  and 
the  text  from  raised  types. 

>C  This  Monte  Santo  di  Dio  is  the  first  examule  of  illustration 

* 

by  means  of  engraved  metal  plates.  The  plates  of  copper  are  said 
to  ha.ve  been  designed  by  Baldini  and  engraved  by  Boticello,  both 
pupils  of  Finiguerra.  The  steps  of  the  ladder  leading  to  heaven  are 

t 

marked  Humility,  'prudence,  temperance,  Fortitude,  etc.,  and  a jnonk 


_oo  _ 

• v-i  ~ 


is  successfully  ascendintj,  his  eyes  fixed  on  a crucifix  dn  the  hill, 
to  which  he  says,  "Draw  rne  after  thee".  A ^nan  of  the  world  at  one 
side  looks  for  the  way  to  the  sacred  mountain  and  cai  not  see  it,  while 
a demon  holds  l^im  the  leg  with  a band  marked,  "blindness". 

After  the  15th  century  printing  declined  in  Venice,  vdiich 

IS 

had  seen  the  glory  of  the  Aldines,  and  it  in  Florence  that  we  find 


the  best  illustrated  work. 


In  Prance  the  early  book  had  neither  the  di^'piity  of  the 
German  nor  the  grace  of  the  Italian.  Book -illustration  started  in 
the  provinces  as  the  Paris  printers  hesitated  to  compete  with  the 
beautiful  mss.  Illustration,  hov/ever,  reached  its  height  in  France 
in  the  decoration  of  the  Book^  of  Hours,  which  has  never  been  surpassed 
•^yTdelicacy  of  treatment  . 

The  Books  of  Hours  were  sornetiines  called  the  Lay  Prayer  Book. 

A typical  Book  of  Hours  would  contain 

1 A kalendar  )i  picture) 

2 Passages  from  the  Gospels  on  the  Passion  of  Christ  (1-3  picts) 

3 Private  prayers 

4 The  Hours  themselves^  each  referring  to  soine  event  in  the  life 

of  our  Lord  and  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  with  the  Hours  of  the 
Passion  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost  (9-13  pictures) 

5 The  seven  penitential  psalins  (i-2  pictures) 

6 The  litany  of  the  saints 

7 The  vigils  of  the  dead  (1-4  pictures) 

Se^en  psalms  on  Christ's  Passion. 


8 


The  Books  of  Hours  lent  themselves  readily  to  decoration.  Some  prin 
ters  contented  themselves  with  large  illustrations,  and  others 
surrounded  the  text  with  borders  of  flov/ers  and  buds. 

In  a typical  edition,  the  borders  consist  of  a number  of  small 
blocks,  or  plates,  in  which  the  figures  add  to  the  teaching  of  the 
main  illustration.  The  earliest  dat  ed  French  Horae  is  by  Verard 
in  1487.  The  borders  here  sho'vn  in  1,  2 and  3 are  illumination 

4 shows  introduction  of  paga.n  devices,  5 shows  dotted  ground__,and  6 
shov;-s  dotted  ground  and  figures.  The  cut  at  the  right  contains  the 
printer’s  mark  of  Pigouchet,  one  of  the  noted  publishers  of  the 
Hours  . 

Tile  first  figure  here  was  printed  in  1500  and  represents  the 
f lc\gellation . The  border  is  renaissance.  The  second  figure  is  of 
the  sajne  period  and  saine  style.  The  chief  feature  is  the  printer’s 
mark,  which  shov/s  Herculfls  shooting  a poisoned  arrow  at  the  centaur 
who  is  carrying  off  his  wife.  The  third  is  of  an  earlier  period  and 
shoivs  a Gothic,  border.  The  subject  is  the  raising  of  Lazarus. 

The  fourth  is  a masterpiece  of  Pigouchet,  a.nd  represents  the  over- 
throw of  Uriah,  the  Hittite.  The  arch  and  the  borders  are  only 
seirii  -Got hi  c . 

These  four  pages  show  various  borders.  The  dark  spots  are 
v/here  the  letters  were  illuminated  in  the  original. 

In  England,  early  book  illustration  was  imitative  find 
inferior  to  work  on  the  continent . 


-24-- 


K 


The  hook  at  the  end  of  the  16th  and  the  bec-inninc  of  the  17th 


century  was  archi t ectural  in  style,  owin^  to  the  influence  of  Plantin. 
The  title  pages  shov/-ed  heavy  foundations  and  poi-ticoes  and  were 
overloaded.  Artists,  publishers,  and  booksellers  were  restrained 
religious  and  political  discipline.  At  the  end  of  the  17th  century ^ 

X in  the  reign  of  Louis  14,  the  book  becaiae  very  pompous,  its  decora- 
tion shov;-ed  Gods  and  Goddesees  in  armour,  Louis  14  as  Apollo,  as  tne 
sun  lighting  the  world.  It  was  very  artificial,  but  it  had  more  life 
than  the  Plantinian  style. 

X In  the  18th  century  book -decoration  revived  and  was  marked  by 

exceeding  delicacy,  nearly  every  frontispiece  had  a border  draped 
with  garlands  of  roses  and  ribbons.  It  was  the  time  of  winged  Cupids. 

The  19th  century  shows  the  return  to  wood  engraving,  which  gave 
way  Co  metal  engraving  at  the  close  of  the  16th  century.  This  was 
^ revived  in  England  by  Thomas  Bev/ick  who  really  invented  a nev/  method, 
lie  engraved  his  designs  on  wood  himself  and  thus  avoided  the  mistakes 
due  to  inartistic  gravers.  The  20th  century  is  characterized  by  the 
application  of  photography  to  book  illustration. 

Among  modern  designs,  a fev/  examples  stand  out  as  represen- 
tative of  distinct  styles. 

The  influence  of  the  Pre-Raphaelite  school  is  shown  in  this  work 
by  Sir  Edward  Burne-Jones  which  v/as  cut  on  a large  wood-block, 

X a-.d  this  of  Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti,  engraved  on  wood. 

^ Children's  books  have  attracted  the  illustrators  and  one  of  the 

best  known  of  these  Kate  Greenaway  whose  pictorial  style  is  readily 

i\ 

identified . 


f 


The  illustrations  of  Arthur  Hughes,  for  rlacdonald ’ s At  the  back 


of  the  north  wind^  are  wonderfully  sympathetic  anci  show  the 
Japanese  influence. 

X Aubrey  Beardsley  h;.s  an  individual  style  though  it  shows  influences 

of  medieval  decoration  and  Japanese  imijressionism . His  use  of  solid 
black  is  peculiar  and  suggests  the  execution  of  the  design  in  enamel 
rather  than  on  paper. 

( Hov/ard  "^le  is  another  well  knovm  artist  whose  style  as  shown 

in  this  cut  rather  suggests  Albrecht  Diirer,  especially  in  his 
treatment  of  textiles. 

^ Walter  Crane  has  laid  dovm  some  rules  which  should  govern 

illustrations  for  books.  The  type  should  give  the  key  to  the  style 
of  decoration  and  happy  is  that  artist  who  i.icty  letter  his  title  page. 

Mr.  Crane  makes  his  design  suggest  the  rectangular  form  of  the  page, 
thinking  that  it  shows  more  control  and  firmness.  In  his  own  design 
here  shovm  he  has  embodied  his  principles. 

Williaj.i  Morris  treated  the  double  page  as  one,  having  no 

frontispiece  in  the  usual  sense,  but  having  his  title  page  on  the 

left,  and  the  first  page  of  his  text , ornamented , on  the  right.  By 

the  use  of  heavy  black  letters  and  ornate  borders  the  pictorial 

effect  is  produced.  W\'tV\  'W^Wv'avw  tn  s ^ w-^  Vj'vws.^ 

-tUe-  o-f  w/vv^vaV. 

The  book  has  ever  been  a reflection  of  the  time  in  which 
it  was  produced;  at  first  simple  and  genuine,  then  gay  or  serious 
according  to  requirements,  adapting  itself  to  conventionalities,  to 
religious  or  political  force,  as  well  as  to  the  reign  of  classic  art. 


